The role of non-ordinary states of consciousness occasioned by mind-body practices in mental health illness
Silvia J. Franco Corso a b, Kate O'Malley b, Saleena Subaiya b, Danielle Mayall, Elias Dakwar
Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Vangelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY, United States of America
Division on Substance Use, New York State Psychiatric Institute and Department of Psychiatry, New York, NY, United States of America
Received 3 November 2022, Revised 13 April 2023, Accepted 29 April 2023, Available online 6 May 2023.
Abstract
Background Research with hallucinogens suggests that non-ordinary states of consciousness (NOSCs), particularly mystical-type experiences, predict improvements in various affective disorders and substance use disorders (SUDs). Little is known, however, about the therapeutic potential of NOSCs induced by mind-body practices such as meditation, yoga and breathwork.
Methods We conducted a literature review in online databases (PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar) and preprint databases (SSRN, bioRxiv) to identify studies of NOSCs induced by mind-body practices and their effects in affective disorders and SUDs.
Results A wide variety of mind-body practices involving physical movement (i.e., shamanic drumming, yoga) and hyper-focused immersive mental experiences (i.e., meditation, breathwork) have been reported in the literature. Preliminary evidence, mostly from qualitative studies and open label studies, suggest that mind-body practices produce NOSCs. Such experiences have been associated with short-term reduced levels of anxiety and depression, increased motivation to quit addictive behaviors, and enhanced self-awareness and spiritual well-being.
Limitations Findings are limited by the scarcity of literature in this field. Further rigorous and methodologically sound empirical research is needed, including comparative studies of NOSCs occasioned by different methods.
Conclusions Mind-body practices may represent a promising approach for treating mental health disorders. The NOSCs induced by such practices may lead to beneficial shifts in perceptions, values, beliefs, and behaviors. Given the challenges with hallucinogen-based therapies, mind-body practices may represent a more accessible and acceptable way of eliciting potentially helpful NOSCs in clinical practice."
BODY
"Introduction Mental illness leads to immense suffering, with the severity of distress predicted by transdiagnostic risk factors such as negative affectivity, dysfunctional attitudes, negative cognitive style, and avoidance behavior (Lukat et al., 2017). Despite advances in the management of mental health disorders like depression, anxiety, and substance use disorders (SUD), high rates of relapse and low treatment adherence remain important challenges (Immanuel et al., 2021; Tate et al., 2011). The etiology of mental health disorders involves an interaction of genetic predispositions and psychological, social, and environmental factors, each of which requires clinical attention through tailored interventions (Tambs et al., 1997). Targeting shared risk factors nonetheless represents a promising transdiagnostic approach to addressing the suffering borne of mental illness. So-called psychedelic therapy – the term given to psychotherapy frameworks that clinically leverage the psychoactive effects of certain hallucinogens, such as psilocybin, MDMA, and ketamine – has re-emerged as a multi-dimensional “holistic” approach to mental illness, amenable to widespread implementation and postulated to address shared transdiagnostic vulnerabilities (Raison et al., 2022). The use of hallucinogens occasions non-ordinary states of consciousness (NOSCs); these are transient experiences, distinct from mundane phenomenology, and different from the contents and processes of the mind in a typical waking state (Ludwig, 1966). Converging evidence indicates that hallucinogen-induced NOSCs are critical to the therapeutic effects of these compounds, with a direct role of such experiences in relief from anxiety (Griffiths et al., 2016; Ross et al., 2016), depression (Griffiths et al., 2016; Roseman et al., 2017; Ross et al., 2016), and SUD (Johnson et al., 2017; Rothberg et al., 2021) among other mental health disorders. NOSCs have also been linked to sudden, enduring, and beneficial personal changes (Griffiths et al., 2018; MacLean et al., 2011). NOSCs are thought to provide benefits by occasioning a reappraisal of values and meaning; by deepening relationality with a larger world beyond one's circumscribed sphere of egoic concerns; and by facilitating existential, moral, or religious inquiry (Leary et al., 1964). There are a few important challenges associated with hallucinogen-based treatments. Access to hallucinogens is limited given that they are currently prohibited substances in most countries. Further, hallucinogens can induce intense effects and psychological distress and may carry a non-negligible risk of medical adverse reactions, such as psychotic-like experiences and cardiac complications, especially in individuals with pre-existing health conditions (Johnson et al., 2008). Ensuring that patients receive appropriate medical screening and monitoring is essential. Accordingly, most clinical trials to date use highly selective eligibility criteria, carefully controlled research settings, labor- and time-intensive monitoring protocols, and a highly experienced team of supervising clinicians. These factors are recognized to compromise the generalizability and scalability of psychedelic therapy (Johnson et al., 2008; Marks and Cohen, 2021; Ona et al., 2022). NOSCs are not restricted to hallucinogens. Methods encompassing a wide variety of mind-body practices can produce comparable shifts in consciousness (De Castro, 2015; Miller and C'de Baca, 2001; Norlander et al., 2001; Winkelman, 1986). Further, several studies suggest that NOSCs induced by mind-body practices promote potentially therapeutic effects such as enhanced self-awareness (Feinstein et al., 2018; Miller and Nielsen, 2015), feelings of self-realization (Motilal, 1983; Shivarama and Gangadhar, 2012), and spiritual well-being (Miller and C'de Baca, 2001; Reavley and Pallant, 2009). Yet, an empirical understanding of NOSCs induced by mind-body practices is limited, in part, by the lack of synthesis of the extant research. In the following paper, we will summarize some of these mind-body practices, their relationship with NOSCs, and the rationale for why such practices could be beneficial to mental health. We will explore mind-body practices involving physical movement (i.e., shamanic drumming, yoga, dancing), hyper-focused immersive mental experiences (i.e., meditation, breathwork), and other techniques like sensory deprivation (De Castro, 2015; Miller and C'de Baca, 2001; Norlander et al., 2001; Winkelman, 1986).Breathwork is an umbrella term referring to a wide range of disciplines that utilize rhythmic breathing patterns as a method for self-exploration and healing (Taylor, 1994). Traditional mind-body practices consider breath manipulation as essential to their practice, as it can facilitate access to deeper states of consciousness. An example is pranayama, a type of breathwork rooted in yoga that involves synchronization of the breath with body postures (asanas) or is sometimes used as an exercise on its own (Joshi, 2006). Pranayama may involve manipulating and controlling the breath with specific patterns, variations in rates of respiration, or respiratory tasks (i.e., alternate nostril breathing) (Jayawardena et al., 2020). In the Western world, dozens of breathwork methods have recently emerged, claiming positive effects on psychopathology and well-being (Young, 2010). Examples include Holotropic Breathwork®, Transformational Breathwork, and Wim Hof method®. These use specific patterns of enhanced breathing techniques with diverse elements like evocative music, positive affirmations, or exposure to extreme cold respectively (Hof, 2020; Grof and Grof, 2010; Nardini-Bubols et al., 2019; Rhinewine and Williams, 2007). Importantly, the only mind-body practice specifically intended to induce acute NOSCs in clinical settings is Holotropic breathing, devised by Stanislav Grof in lieu of LSD-assisted therapy (Grof and Grof, 2010). Another mind-body practice commonly used to achieve NOSCs is meditation. Meditative practices are part of the contemplative repertoire of many religions, including Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism (Dhavamony, 1982). For the last two centuries, meditation has expanded to other cultures as solitary practices in a non-spiritual context and without reference to religious traditions (Walsh and Shapiro, 2006). Meditation techniques can be organized along a continuum, with diffuse or open-monitoring meditation on one end, and concentrative or focused-attention meditation on the other (Dakwar and Levin, 2009; Mehrmann and Karmacharya, 2013). Concentrative techniques involve focusing on a specific sensory or mental stimulus (i.e., a body sensation) to the exclusion of anything else (Dakwar and Levin, 2009). Diffuse techniques involve developing a present-centered and non-attached mode of observation, allowing thoughts and feelings to arise with an accepting attitude (Dakwar and Levin, 2009). Yoga is another mind-body practice that has the potential to evoke NOSCs. Yoga originated in ancient India and encompasses a set of philosophical beliefs, meditation, moral principles, and physical practices (White, 2011). Yoga has gained popularity in the West as a posture-based physical practice and relaxation technique (Burley, 2000). The original goals of traditional yoga (i.e., spiritual liberation) have been largely replaced by the goals of fitness and relaxation, whereas components like asceticism and right conduct have been reduced or removed entirely (Singleton, 2010). Traditional yoga focuses on breathing techniques (pranayama) and meditation (dyana) (White, 2011). Self-development techniques to cultivate the body and the mind as well as liberation from attachment are its common pillars (Feuerstein, 2012; Kovoor, 2002). As a physical activity, yoga consists largely of dynamic movements (asanas), often connected by flowing sequences (vinyasas) (White, 2011) and sometimes gymnastics (Mallinson, 2011). Music rituals, sometimes accompanied by dancing or contemplative activities like meditation, have also often been used for spiritual purposes and are now being incorporated into clinical settings (Demmrich, 2020). Music is considered a source of healing, self-expression, and community cohesion (Dickerson et al., 2021; Gingras et al., 2014; Haddad, 2004). Music rituals can involve chanting, melodic vocalization, and the use of instruments. Drumming, a practice common to many shamanic traditions such as the American Indian/Alaska Natives and African tribes (Harner, 1990; Krippner and Combs, 2000) is used as part of their healing rituals or ceremonies. The steady beat of the drum, which is typically monotonous and highly predictable, is said to induce a trance-like state, allowing participants to connect with their inner selves and the spiritual world. An unpredicted rhythmic shift is often used to disengage from the trance state (Harner, 1990; Winkelman, 2010). Chanting to induce NOSCs usually involves repetitive singing or vocalization of sounds and phrases (Perry et al., 2021). An example is Icaros, medicinal songs that Amazonian Shamans sing during ayahuasca ceremonies (Beyer, 2009). Another practice, TaKeTiNa, is a form of “active rhythm meditation” in which a group of participants simultaneously maintain three separate rhythms while chanting, stepping, and clapping (Haddad, 2004). Taketina is utilized for multiple purposes, including as a means for personal growth and self-discovery, and as a tool for musical development to enhance skills such as timing, coordination, and improvisation (Nieto, 2016). Lastly, sensory deprivation has also been reported to induce NOSCs. For centuries, artists, intellectuals, and spiritual guides have sought periods of isolation, usually in locations with little or reduced variety of sensory input (i.e. caves, dark rooms) to facilitate introspection and spiritual growth. Practitioners of Buddhism and Taoism engage in solo “dark retreats” in spaces devoid of light where they reportedly experience profound alterations in cognition, and perception (Lowenstein, 2003). A Western method for sensory deprivation is Reduced Environmental Stimulation Therapy (REST) in a flotation tank, which entails floating in water with high concentrations of magnesium sulfate in a quiet and light-insulated tank (Kjellgren et al., 2008). The setting is manipulated so that auditory, visual, tactile, and gravitational sensory signals are minimized to produce a state of weightlessness and profound relaxation (Kjellgren et al., 2008). Despite the lack of popularity among mental health practitioners, commercial centers around the world are marketing different modalities of sensory isolation and claiming mental health benefits. These aforementioned mind-body have been proposed to be valuable psychotherapeutic tools for enhancing well-being and ameliorating various psychiatric conditions through transdiagnostic mechanisms (Bennetts, 2022; Capobianco et al., 2018; Taylor et al., 2020). Given that psychedelic therapies may not be suitable for everyone who might benefit from NOSCs, mind-body practices could represent a more accessible and safer way to occasion potentially therapeutic NOSCs. In this review, we will synthesize the available literature on the propensity for these mind-body practices to elicit NOSCs and their relevance to mental health. We will also provide a summary of potential neurobiological and psychological mechanisms of action and suggest avenues for research."
(Dr E, 2023)
NOSC = Non-Ordinary States of Consciousness
SUD = Substance Abuse Disorders
Real scientific analyses in this arena at all may be considered a victory. Yet, what can and cant really be derived from the piece? What is the quintessential valuation of this work and its correlation-bridging to the third dimension?
Affective disorders can be annotated any way science wishes and can be called "drug related" or not. Moreover, when science groups psycho-affective dysfunction, its already a bit unscientific. Can they group psycho-toxins found in the common biowarfare substances that permeate human reality through the air, the waters, and soils, the beings, and the frequency wave oscillations on Earth altogether? If so, what will the acronym be? BioWarfared Toxic Avenger Humans (BWTAH) ... "Beast 9" ... or perhaps, "BioVessel23," this the one that portends to the evil plot on Earth of removing the human "souls" from the "soils" ... ?
The "Reefer Madness" campaigns of the 40's and 50's, etc... are part of the MK Mind Control NaughtSeeGermany formulaic takeover of the Earth. Today, they have MSNBC, CBS, ABC and ... CNN... etc... and they have nanobots. Yet, they are a "conspeory theiracy" to the crippled minds of the population, no more! We exclaim a collected "Oh, I see..." as the normalized response continues its ostrich-head-in-hole "elitist" tactic. The fears from a collective ban on a specific being ... such a trauma to the many... has worked wonders in terms of blinding people to become sheeple. Nowadays, there is little humanity left to "save..." it seems. Yet, little Dr E met the UC Berkeley LSD champions in person back in the 60's in many cases and also has traversed the cosmos beside them. "Travellers" they are ...and they have called "Dr E" their latest Johnny Come Lately, and some, btw, at times.
Dire Straits - The Walk of Life
Fear peddling aside, let us look into the productivity profiles associated with hallucinogenic therapies. "ActShoeAl and Factsyouall" coming in now... PG 13,...ok?
Literature Review (LitRev) allows the researcher teams to amalgamate opinions and findings... which Dr E will call "end game" anyway. Why not jump to the conclusion after reading the abstract-introduction? Then ... "skim-scan" the body for elements useful to further investigation. Then...continue the discussion inquiry... without end perhaps...as in "evolution."
The research has indeed shown that hallucinogens can be part of addiction therapy in SUD's and can be quite helpful in an area that usually evades normalized treatment successes. Then, can the research extrapolate to conscious addictions and "SUD" of psycho-emotive content and context? Here, for credibility concerns and lack, perhaps, of other instrumentation, the research only "micro messages" the spiritual correlations... they are implied... like a sniper in some tall grass. Dr E seeks to counter the new "veil," if the reader will...with word coding: "Ex Trap You Late" ... that implies a codex solvency... as suggests a flower's bud as wisdom!
The NSOC itself is a struggle... because 'ordinary' is not really a variable but a perplexed construct of the same mind that seeks treatment because of it! Indeed, what if people actually knew the universe? ordinary...well, its pretty hard to find out there...trust the Dr on this one!
Yet, the mind-body, physical movement, and a bevy of myriad immersive techniques, that have been researched, and re-researched herein, ....to include intentional breathwork and conscious intentional body movements ...show great promise. The qualitative analyses are yet boo-hoo'd by the "empireickle" credibility micro messaging that yet permeates "science." Yet, with empirical evidence... the host of doubt is repelled it seems! What will these studies reveal to the non listening minds of the many? No thing? Well, the numbers do show a drop in anxiety and depression... addictions... and increases in self awareness, well being, and ... MOTIVATION.
Is everything simply a matter of "MightyKhanDria?" The miraculous manifestation of consciousness into moving physical energy... is there a "movie?"
John Wicke 4? The Matrix? The Equalizer? ..."Dont look Up?" LOL.
The conclusion that mind-body practices assist in treatment of conscious disorder is resolute across so many studies! Mind-body practices may represent a promising approach for treating mental health disorders. "Perceptions, values, beliefs, and behaviors," appear as the keys in the tool sets. Oddly, network television via communist china drives this value in Americans. Hmmm.
The inclusion of hallucinogenic therapies, as with many advanced practices, requires suitable preparations. How so? When the ego presents during a hallucination, it grounds the experience in ... hell. This also a learning place... but only the lowest darkest lessons are taught there. What about the Light and Love lessons? They come about after-preparations... yes, after word ...said the good Dr.
ANOTHER ASPECT HERE WOULD BE TO EMPIRICALLY MEASURE SEROTONIN AFTER CLINICAL HALLUCINOGEN USE. P-Roof !!!
Please Also See https://www.amazon.com/Dynamics-Police-Organizational-Change-Engbeck/dp/3639763548
The photo was taken while Dr E was bodyguarding a tennis pro turned addiction recovery author, Andre Agassi ... with the micro-message of "Agony" inference.